INTRODUCTION:

Majorityofpopulationutilizesgroundwaterfordomestic,agricultureandindustrialpurposes.Somevillagesnearthebankofriverutilizeriverwaterforagriculturalpractices.Fastpopulationgrowth,urbanizationandindustrializationhaveimposedpressureonthenaturalresources.Thedisposalofindustrialeffluentintothewaterbodieswithoutadequatetreatmentisthemajorcauseoftheenvironmentalpollution.¹Apartfromthemetalhandicraftmanufacturingindustries,electronicwasterecyclingandmetalwasterecyclingisbeingcarriedoutonthedistrictandthewasteisbeingdumpedintothegroundandinthedrainswithoutanytreatment.Pollutedwatercanbeaseriousthreattohumanhealth.²Urbanizationandconventionallandfillsleadstodeteriorationofthegroundwaterqualityandpoordrainagesystemimpairsthesurfacewaterquality.

Ironcanbeatroublesomechemicalinwatersupplies.Ironisthefourthmostabundantelementmakingup5.6%ofearth’sandironisoneoftheearth’smostplentifulresources.Rainwaterasitinfiltratesthesoilandunderlyinggeologicformationsdissolvesiron,causingittoseepintoaquifersthatserveassourcesofgroundwaterforwells.Ironcontaminationofwatercaneitherbegeogenicorviaindustrialeffluentsanddomesticwaste.Ironcontainingwaterafterreactingwithteaandcoffeeappearsinkyblack.³Ironisanessentialelementforhaemoglobin,myoglobinandanumberofenzymesanditsdeficiencyleadtoanemiaandlossofwell-being.However,itsoverloadcausesseverehealthproblemsinhumanbeingssuchaslivercancer,diabetes,cirrhosisofliver,heartdiseasesandinfertilityetc.Thepresenceofhigherconcentrationsofironchangescolor,taste,odourofwater,leavingstainsonclothesandcorrodeswaterpipelines.⁴Ironismainlypresentinwaterintwoforms:eitherthesolubleferrousironortheinsolubleferriciron.Watercontainingferrousironisclearandcolorlessbecausetheironiscompletelydissolved.Whenexposedtoairinthepressuretankoratmosphere,thewaterturnscloudyandareddishbrownsubstancebeginstoform.

Inthepresentstudy,thewaterqualityhasbeenassessedwithrespecttoironcontamination.Beforethewatersamplecollection,thelocationofindustries,drainagesystemandriverbodieswerethoroughlystudied.InthisarticlewereportthewaterqualityofMaldadistrictwithrespecttoironcontaminationonthebasisofquantitativeestimationofironinwaterinthelaboratory.

OCCURANCE:

IronisconsequentlythemostabundantelementonEarth,butonlythefourthmostabundantelementintheEarth'scrust,afteroxygen,silicon,andaluminium.⁵Mostoftheironinthecrustisfoundcombinedwithoxygenasironoxidemineralssuchashematite(Fe₂O₃),magnetite(Fe₃O₄),andsiderite(FeCO₃).Manyigneousrocksalsocontainthesulfidemineralspyrrhotiteandpentlandite.⁶

Ferropericlase(Mg,Fe)O,asolidsolutionofpericlase(MgO)andwüstite(FeO),makesupabout20%ofthevolumeofthelowermantleoftheEarth,whichmakesitthesecondmostabundantmineralphaseinthatregionaftersilicateperovskite(Mg,Fe)SiO₃;italsoisthemajorhostforironinthelowermantle.Atthebottomofthetransitionzoneofthemantle,thereactionγ-(Mg,Fe)₂[SiO₄]↔(Mg,Fe)[SiO₃]+(Mg,Fe)Otransformsγ-olivineintoamixtureofperovskiteandferropericlaseandviceversa.Intheliterature,thismineralphaseofthelowermantleisalsooftencalledmagnesiowüstite.Silicateperovskitemayformupto93%ofthelowermantle,⁷andthemagnesiumironform,(Mg,Fe)SiO₃,isconsideredtobethemostabundantmineralintheEarth,makingup38%ofitsvolume.⁸

Largedepositsofironarefoundinbandedironformations.Thesegeologicalformationsareatypeofrockconsistingofrepeatedthinlayersofironoxidesalternatingwithbandsofiron-poorshaleandchert.Thebandedironformationswerelaiddowninthetimebetween3,700millionyearsagoand1,800millionyearsago.^9,10

Significantamountsofironoccurintheironsulfidemineralpyrite(FeS₂),butitisdifficulttoextractironfromitanditisthereforenotused.Infact,ironissocommonthatproductiongenerallyfocusesonlyonoreswithveryhighquantitiesofit.Duringweathering,irontendstoleachfromsulfidedepositsasthesulfateandfromsilicatedepositsasthebicarbonate.BothoftheseareoxidizedinaqueoussolutionandprecipitateinevenmildlyelevatedpHasiron(III)oxide.

About1in20meteoritesconsistoftheuniqueiron-nickelmineralstaenite(35–80%iron)andkamacite(90–95%iron).Althoughrare,ironmeteoritesarethemainformofnaturalmetallicironontheEarth'ssurface.¹¹

STUDYAREA and ITSTOPOGRAPHY:MALDADISTRICT(W.B.):

ForstudiesonpollutionassessmentinsurfaceandgroundwaterinMaldaDistrictfordrinkingwaterpurpose,oneofthepopulatedareahavingalltypesofwaterresourcesinusehasbeentakenupasastudyarea.HereforthispurposethescholarhastakenthetownshipofMaldaofMaldadistrictofWestBengal.WestBengalawellknownstateofIndia(Figure1)wasseparatedfromtheoldBengalstatein1905byLordCurzon.ItconsistsofthreedivisionsnamelyJalpaiguriDivision,BurdwanDivisionandPresidencyDivision.JalpaiguriDivision

Figure1:LocationofWestBengalinIndia

comprisesofsixdistrictsnamely,Jalpaiguri,Darjeeling,CoochBehar,Malda,NorthDinajpurandSouthDinajpur.Maldadistrictconsistsoffifteenblocksnamely,Kaliachak-I,Kaliachak-II,Kaliachak-III,EnglishBazar,OldMalda,Habipur,Bamangola,Gazole,Ratua-I,Ratua-II,Manikchak,Chanchal-I,Chanchal-II,Harishchandrapur-IandHarishchandrapur-II.EnglishBazarisatownshiphavingalldifferenttypesofwaterresourcesfordrinkingpurposeandhenceforstudypurposethistownshiphasbeentakenupasamodelforresearchstudyonthepollutionstatusandassessmentofsurfaceandgroundwaterinMaldafordrinkingpurpose.

Malda-WestBengal:

Maldahasarichcolonialhistoryandiswellknownforitsnaturalbeautyandtherivers.IthasseenmanygreatrulersinthepastfromtheBuddhist,HindusandtheMuslim.

ThedistrictexperiencedextremeclimateconditionsandisfoundtobeaveryimportantdistrictinWestBengal(Figure2).DuringtheBritishruleitwasknownastheEnglishBazaar.MaldaissituatedontheconfluenceoftheriversKalindiandMahananda.

Figure2:LocationofMaldainWestBengal

Itislocatedonlatituderangeis24degree40'20"Nto25degree32'08"Nandlongituderangeis87degree45'50"Eto88degree28'10"E.Thedistrictoccupiesanareaof3,733.66sqKM.thedistrictissurroundbyMurshidabaddistricttothesouth,NorthDinajpurtothenorth,andBangladeshtotheeast.ThewestsidesharesitsborderswithJharkhandandBihar.

Maldadistrictiswellconnectedwithroadsandrailwaytransporttodifferentpartsofthecountry.TherailwaystationfoundhereisnamedasMaldatown.MostofthetrainsthatareboundforNorthBengalandNortheasternstatespassthroughMaldatownstation.ThedistrictalsohasNationalHighway34andthesecondNationalHighwayNothatpassesthroughthedistrictisNH-81.TheheadquarterislocatedatIngrajBazar.ThereareplentyofroadsthatconnecttomajortownsliketheManikChak,Maldah,Habibpur,Bamangola,Kahrab,Harishchadrapur,Samsi,KaliachakandBahgabanpur(Figure3).

The Mahananda River divides Malda district into two regions. The Ganga River flows along the south western boundary. Some of the other rivers are the Tangoan, Kalindri, Bhagirathi, Punarbhaba and Pagla (Figure 4).

Malda had a population of 3,997,970 according to 2011 report and ranks 58th in India. The density of population per square kilometer is 1,071. The district recorded a sex ratio of 939 females per 1000 males. The literacy rate is 62.71 percent.

Figure3:PositionofDifferentBlockofMaldaDistrict

Figure4:RoadmapofMaldaDistrict

Thedistrictcomprisesof59percentofMuslimpeople,40percentHindusandonepercentofotherreligion.ThelanguagespokenhereisUrdu,Bengali,HindiandMaithili.Therearealsosomeregionallanguagesaswell.

Maldaisabeautifulplaceandisrichinhistory.Itboostsofvariousmonuments,mosques,templesandvariousotherbuildingsfromtheBritishandpre-Britishrule.TheJamaMasjid,Nimsaritower,Raiganjbirdsanctuary,museum,ruinsofGaurandPanduaetcaresomeoftheinterestingplacestovisitinMalda.

SAMPLECOLLECTION:

TheWaterTreatmentPlant,Dariapur,MaldatownislocatedattheeasternbankofriverGangaatthestreamandisabout24kms,fromthemaintown.Itwasinstalledin2003.Ithaseightgravityfiltrationunits.Thepresentcapacityofgravityfiltrationplantis47.5MLD(Millionliteraday),whichfallscantyanddonotfulfillthepresentdemandof17.5MLD(Millionliteraday).Itscoagulantaiddisinfectionunitsarefunctional.Watertapslocatedatthedifferentplacesofthetownwereselected.Thesourcesofflowingwaterinallarefromwater-workstation.Thefirstsitewaslocatedatthefiltrationunititselfandsubsequentsiteswerefromdifferentpublicandprivatetaps.Forroutinestudythreedifferentpointswereselectedinthetownship.Besidesampleswerealsocollectedrandomlyfromdifferentplacesofthetown.

1.TubeWell/HandPump:

Tube-wellscommonlycalledas‘Hand-pumps’havebecomeverypopularandareextensivelyusedfordomesticneed.Atleasttwotube-wells(Plate1)ofdifferentplaces,wereselectedforperiodicalregularstudyofwater.Bothtube-wellsarepublicwellsandareinstalledatthedifferentplacesofthetown.Surroundingsofthesetwotube-ellswereveryunhygienic.Outof149tube-wellsinstalledatMalda,waterfromabout100tube-wellsweretestedrandomlyonintervals.

2.PondWater:

Pondsareverypopularinthevillagesandareextensivelyusedfordomesticneed.Atleasttwoponds(Plate1)ofdifferentplaces,wereselectedforperiodicalregularstudyofwater.Bothpondsarepublicwellsandareinstalledatthedifferentplacesofthedistrict.Surroundingsofthesetwopondswereveryunhygienic.

3. Well Water:

At least two public wells were selected for regular monitoring of water quality some of the wells (Plate 3) of the town is extensively used by local people for drinking at homes as well as in the hotels. It is well built having a cement floor around. Water of some wells is mostly used for offering to God and Goddess in the nearly temples. A small group of people use it for drinking purposes this has been built improperly without any sanitation and their surroundings are unhygienic.

4.RiverWater:

RiverareverypopularforpoorpeopleandareextensivelyusedfordomesticneedandthisriverwatersuppliedforthepeopleofDulalganjofKaliachak-IIBlockofMaldaDistrict.Thesamplewerecollectedfromdifferentplaces,wereselectedforperiodicalregularstudyofwater(Plate4).

MATERIALSANDMETHODS:

Comparativestudyofthephysico-chemicalandbiologicalpropertiesofthefivedifferentdrinkingwatersources(viz.,River,wellwater,tube-wellwater,boringwater,pondwaternotifiedsupplywateretc.)werestudiedfortwoconsecutiveyearsfromMarch,2011toFebruary,2013regularlyatmonthlyintervals.Watersampleswereproperlycollectedinthepolyethenebottlesduringmorningbetween8.00A.M.and11.00A.M.IroninwaterisdeterminedbytheSpectrophotometricmethod.

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION:

1.DeterminationofIronintheSample:

Ironofdifferentwatersourcesvariedfrom0.03ppmto2.21ppminMarch-2011toFeb.-2012and0.03ppmto0.19ppminMarch-2012toFeb.-2013inriversupplywater,0.18ppmto3.74ppminMarch2011toFeb.-2012and0.17ppmto3.74ppminMarch-2012toFeb.-2013intube-wellwaterand0.10ppmto0.20inMarch-2011toFeb.-2012and0.10ppmto0.19ppminMarch-2012toFeb.-2013inwellwaterand0.9ppmto1.8ppminMarch-2011toFeb.-2012and0.9ppmto1.9ppminMarch-2012toFeb.-2013inPondwater.DetailsdataaregiveninTable1andTable2.

Table 1: Average Monthly Iron Level from Different Water Source (River, Tube-Well, Well and Pond) of Malda District From March 2011 to February 2012

*Month*	March	April	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Jan	Feb
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(River Water)*	0.09	0.08	0.05	0.20	0.17	0.19	0.16	0.21	0.07	0.04	0.03	0.06
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Tube-Well Water)*	0.18	0.29	3.74	2.32	0.99	2.99	1.87	1.67	1.82	1.93	1.99	2.32
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Well Water)*	0.19	0.18	0.20	0.13	0.12	0.15	0.10	0.19	0.16	0.15	0.13	0.17
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Pond Water)*	1.4	1.4	1.8	1.3	1.8	1.6	1.1	0.9	0.9	1.4	1.7	1.1

Table 2: Average Monthly Iron Level from Different Water Source (River, Tube-Well, Well and Pond) of Malda District From March 2012 to February 2013

Month	March	April	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Jan	Feb
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(River Water)*	0.06	0.07	0.05	0.18	0.17	0.19	0.16	0.19	0.07	0.04	0.03	0.04
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Tube-Well Water)*	0.17	0.29	3.74	2.32	0.98	2.99	1.87	1.67	1.82	1.93	1.90	2.32
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Well Water)*	0.18	0.19	0.20	0.13	0.12	0.15	0.10	0.09	0.16	0.15	0.13	0.12
*Iron(mg/lit)* *(Pond Water)*	1.3	1.4	1.9	1.2	1.8	1.6	1.1	0.9	0.9	1.3	1.8	1.0

2.VariationofIronConcentrationwithTimeandSources:

Averagemonthlyvariationofironfromdifferentsourcesuchasriver,tube-well,wellandpondwaterofMaldadistrictfromMarch2011toFebruary2012andMarch2012toFebruary2013shownbyarepresentativeplotintheFigure5andFigure6.

3.CorrelationandSignificanceofResults:

FromtheplotandthedatarecordedinthetableitwasfoundthathighercontaminationofironisobservedincaseofTube-Wellwater,moderatelevelofironisfoundincaseofpondwaterandlowlevelofironisobservedincaseofwellandriverwater.ItwasalsoobservedthathighlevelofironisfoundintheTube-WellwaterduringthemonthofMay,August,JuneandFebruary,moderatelevelofironisfoundduringthemonthofSeptembertoJanuaryandlowlevelofironisdeterminedduringthemonthofMarch,AprilandJuly.

Ironinruralgroundwatersuppliesisacommonproblem:itsconcentrationlevelrangesfrom0to50mg/l,whileWHOrecommendedlevelis<0.3mg/l.Theironoccursnaturallyintheaquiferbutlevelsingroundwatercanbeincreasedbydissolutionofferrousboreholeandhandpumpcomponents.Iron-bearinggroundwaterisoftennoticeablyorangeincolour,causingdiscolorationoflaundry,andhasanunpleasanttaste,whichisapparentindrinkingandfoodpreparation.

Occurrenceofhighconcentrationofiron(Fe)ingroundwaterisverycommonparticularlyinareasoftropicalclimate.¹²Ingroundwater,Fegenerallyoccursintheoxidationstate-reducedsolubledivalentferrousiron(Fe²⁺).Whengroundwatercomesincontactwithoxygenoftheatmosphere,theFeisoxidizedtotheferricstateandisprecipitatedasFe-mineral.ThesubsurfacereducingconditionshavesignificantinfluenceonthehighFecontentofgroundwater.¹²

Incaseofconfinedaquifer,thesubsurfacereducingconditionisnormal.Theunconfinedgroundwaterismostlikelytobetoxic.But,somestudiesonunconfinedaquifersshowedthepresenceofelevatedconcentrationofFe.

ESSENTIALITYOFIRON:

Duringearlyinfancy,ironrequirementsaremetbythelittleironcontainedinthehumanmilk.¹³Theneedforironrisesmarkedly4-6monthsafterbirthandamountstoabout0.7-0.9mg/dayduringtheremainingpartofthefirstyear.¹³Between1and6yearsofage,thebodyironcontentisagaindoubled.¹³Ironrequirementsarealsoveryhighinadolescents,particularlyduringtheperiodofgrowthspurt.Girlsusuallyhavetheirgrowthspurtbeforemenarche,butgrowthisnotfinishedatthattime.Inboysthereisamarkedincreaseinhemoglobinmassandconcentrationduringpuberty.Inthisstage,ironrequirementsincreasetoalevelabovetheaverageironrequirementsinmenstruatingwomen.¹³Theaverageadultstoresabout1-3gofironinhisorherbody.

1.EstimatedTotalExposureandRelative:ContributionofDrinking-Water:

Reporteddailyintakesofironinfoodthemajorsourceofexposurerangefrom10to14mg^14,15.Drinking-watercontaining0.3mg/litrewouldcontributeabout0.6mgtothedailyintake.Intakeofironfromairisabout25μg/dayinurbanareas.

Itwasreportedthatfromstudiesinhumansonly;laboratoryanimalsarenotacceptablemodelsbecausetheyhavemuchhigherintakesthanhumansanddonotabsorbironcompoundsinthesameway.¹⁶Mostironisabsorbedintheduodenumandupperjejunum.¹⁷Absorptiondependsontheindividual'sironstatusandisregulatedsothatexcessiveamountsofironarenotstoredinthebody.¹⁸Totalbodyironinadultmalesandfemalesisusuallyabout50and34–42mg/kgofbodyweight,respectively.¹⁸Thelargestfractionispresentashaemoglobin,myoglobin,andhaem-containingenzymes.Theothermajorfractionisstoredinthebodyasferritinandhaemosiderin,mainlyinthespleen,liver,bonemarrow,andstriatemuscle.¹⁶Dailylossesofironinadultsaresmall(1mg/day)andduemainlytocellexfoliation.Abouttwo-thirdsofthislossoccursfromthegastrointestinaltractandmostoftheremainderfromtheskin.Ironlossesinurineandsweatarenegligible.¹⁹Inadultfemales,thereisanadditionalironlossofabout15–70mgeachmonthinmenstrualblood.²⁰

2.CausesofIronDeficiency:

Irondeficiencyresultsfromdepletionofironstoresandoccurswhenironabsorptioncannotkeeppaceoveranextendedperiodwiththemetabolicdemandsforirontosustaingrowthandtoreplenishironloss,whichisprimarilyrelatedtobloodloss.²¹Theprimarycausesofirondeficiencyincludelowintakeofbioavailableiron,increasedironrequirementsasaresultofrapidgrowth,pregnancy,menstruation,andexcessbloodlosscausedbypathologicinfections,suchashookwormandwhipwormcausinggastrointestinalbloodloss^22,23,24,25andimpairedabsorptionofiron²⁶Thefrequencyofirondeficiencyrisesinfemaleadolescentsbecausemenstrualironlossesaresuperimposedwithneedsforrapidgrowth.²⁷Otherriskfactorsforirondeficiencyinyoungwomenarehighparity,useofanintrauterinedevice,andvegetariandiets.²⁸

Nutritionalirondeficiencyariseswhenphysiologicalrequirementscannotbemetbyironabsorptionfromthediet.²⁵Dietaryironbioavailabilityislowinpopulationsconsumingmonotonousplant-baseddietswithlittlemeat.²⁵Inmanydevelopingcountries,plant-basedweaning-foodsarerarelyfortifiedwithiron,andthefrequencyofanemiaexceeds50%inchildrenyoungerthan4years.²⁹

Whenironstoresaredepletedandinsufficientironisavailableforerythropoiesis,hemoglobinsynthesisinerythrocyteprecursorsbecomeimpairedandhematologicsignsofirondeficiencyanemiaappear.

3.EffectonHumans:

Ironisanessentialelementinhumannutrition.Estimatesoftheminimumdailyrequirementforirondependonage,sex,physiologicalstatus,andironbioavailabilityandrangefromabout10to50mg/day.²⁰

Themostsignificantandcommoncauseofanemiaisirondeficiency.³⁰Ifironintakeislimitedorinadequateduetopoordietaryintake,anemiamayoccurasaresult.Thisiscalledirondeficiencyanemia.Irondeficiencyanemiacanalsooccurwhentherearestomachulcersorothersourcesofslow,chronicbleeding(coloncancer,uterinecancer,intestinalpolyps,hemorrhoids,etc).³¹

Theaveragelethaldoseofironis200–250mg/kgofbodyweight,butdeathhasoccurredfollowingtheingestionofdosesaslowas40mg/kgofbodyweight.¹⁶Autopsieshaveshownhaemorrhagicnecrosisandsloughingofareasofmucosainthestomachwithextensionintothesubmucosa.Chronicironoverloadresultsprimarilyfromageneticdisorder(haemochromatosis)characterizedbyincreasedironabsorptionandfromdiseasesthatrequirefrequenttransfusions.¹⁸Adultshaveoftentakenironsupplementsforextendedperiodswithoutdeleteriouseffects,¹⁸andanintakeof0.4–1mg/kgofbodyweightperdayisunlikelytocauseadverseeffectsinhealthypersons.³²

ANALYTICALMETHODSANDTREATMENTTECHNOLOGY:

Ifthereisanironproblemwiththewatersupply,thefirststepistodeterminethesource.Thesourceofironmaybefromthecorrosionofironorsteelpipesorothercomponentsoftheplumbingsystemwheretheacidityofthewater,measuredaspH,isbelow6.5.

Alaboratoryanalysisofwatertodeterminetheextentoftheironproblemandpossibletreatmentsolutionsshouldbeginwithtestsforironconcentration,ironbacteria,pH,alkalinity,andhardness.Awatersamplekitcanbeobtainedfromacertifiedlaboratory.Thelaboratory’sinstructionsforcollectingthewatersampleshouldbefollowed.Collectthesampleasclosetothewellaspossible.

Ifthesourceofwaterisapublicwatersystemandyouexperienceiron-relatedproblems,itisimportanttocontactautilityofficialtodeterminewhethertheredwaterisfromthepublicsystemorfromthehome’splumbingorpiping.TheTable3liststhetreatmentmethodsforthevariousformsofiron.

Table 3: Treatment Methods for Various Forms of Iron

Symptoms	Form of Iron	Treatment Methods	Considerations
Tap water is first clear and colorless. After standing, reddish brown particles appear and settle to bottom of glass.	Dissolved ferrous iron	Aeration/Filtration	Temperature dependent
		Water softener	Hardness must be calculated and increased sodium concentration should be checked if users(s) on restricted sodium diet. System must be airtight.
		Chlorination/Filtration	Use of chlorine liquid or pellets. Requires frequent monitoring and proper water pressure. May require lengthy contact time.
		Manganese Greensand/Filtration	Adequate pressure
		Catalytic filtration	Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, organic matter, chlorination, polyphosphate, and temperature limitations
		Ozonation	Cost
		Sequestering (adding chemical agents to water to keep iron to an insoluble, filterable form)	Method may not prevent staining and may require removal of sequestering agents and iron. Test for agents before choosing another treatment device.
Tap water appears rusty or has a red or yellow color. After standing, particles settle to bottom.	Insoluble red water ferric iron	Manganese Greensand/Filtration	Adequate pressure
		Catalytic filtration	Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, organic matter, chlorination, polyphosphate, and temperature limitations
		Chlorination/Filtration	Use of chlorine liquid or pellets. Requires frequent monitoring and proper water pressure.
Water tank, toilet tank and plumbing have reddish brown or yellow gelatinous slime or sludge present. Odor may be objectionable.	Iron bacteria	Shock chlorination; consider following with continuous chlorination.	Chlorine products must be suitable for drinking water. Method requires long contact time for adequate treatment.
Water containing organic iron is usually yellow or brown color, but may be colorless. Tannins stain water a tea color.	Organic iron and tannins	Water softener	First, treat for organics (activated carbon). Check for corrosive properties. System must be airtight.
		Manganese Greensand/Filtration	First, treat for organics. Maintain adequate pressure.
		Ozonation	Cost

CONCLUTIONS:

Anaerobicgroundwatersmaycontainiron(II)atconcentrationsuptoseveralmilligramsperlitrewithoutdiscolorationorturbidityinthewaterwhendirectlypumpedfromawell.Tasteisnotusuallynoticeableatironconcentrationsbelow0.3mg/litre,althoughturbidityandcolourmaydevelopinpipedsystemsatlevelsabove0.05–0.1mg/litre.Laundryandsanitarywarewillstainatironconcentrationsabove0.3mg/litre.

Ironisanessentialelementinhumannutrition.Estimatesoftheminimumdailyrequirementforirondependonage,sex,physiologicalstatus,andironbioavailabilityandrangefromabout10to50mg/day.

Inconclusion,theconcentrationsoftheinvestigatedironcontamination,inthewatersamplesfromtheMaldaDistrictwerewithinthepermissiblelimitsinwellandriverwater.Whereasthecontaminationofironexceedsthepermissiblelimitslightlyincaseofpondwaterbutitissufficientlyhighinthegroundwateri.e.inthetube-wellwater.AbovecitedresultsshowsthattheoverallwaterqualityofMaldaDistrictismoreorlesssuitable,excepttube-wellwater,withrespecttoironcontamination,fordrinkingpurposeaswellasdomesticpurposeinabsenceofotherpollutants.

CONFLICTSOFINTEREST:

Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.

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Receivedon07.03.2018Modifiedon15.04.2018

AsianJ.ResearchChem.2018;11(3):637-644.

DOI:10.5958/0974-4150.2018.00114.1